The Kurgan hypothesis postulates that the Proto-Indo-Europeans were the bearers of the Kurgan culture of the Black Sea and the Caucasus and west of the Urals.The hypothesis was introduced by Marija Gimbutas in 1956, combining kurgan archaeology with linguistics to locate the origins of the Proto-Indo-European (PIE)-speaking peoples. It postulates that the people of a Kurgan culture in the Pontic steppe north of the Black Sea were the most likely speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language . After the Yuezhi were defeated by the Xiongnu, in the 2nd century BCE, a small group, known as the Little Yuezhi, fled to the south, later spawning the Jie people who dominated the Later Zhao until their complete extermination by Ran Min in the WeiJie war. 3400 BCE. [173] Pre-Italic may have developed in Hungary, and spread toward Italy via the Urnfield culture and Villanovan culture. Reich is a lean, fit man in his mid-forties who speaks with rapid, quiet precision. But the genetics of Roopkund B, showing no sign of isolation or inbreeding, ruled this out, too. [1][2] It postulates that the people of a Kurgan culture in the Pontic steppe north of the Black Sea were the most likely speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE). Driven from the Ili Valley shortly afterwards by the Wusun, the Yuezhi migrated to Sogdia and then Bactria, where they are often identified with the Tokhrioi () and Asioi of Classical sources. [6][7][web 1][8][web 2][9], The Proto-Indo-Iranian language and culture probably emerged within the Sintashta culture (c.21001800 BCE), at the eastern border of the Abashevo culture, which in turn developed from the Corded Ware-related Fatyanovo-Balanovo culture. Who removed those things? In contrast, the indigenous groups of Old Europe had neither a warrior class nor horses. It is the main competitor to the Kurgan hypothesis, or steppe theory, which enjoys more academic favor. Mitanni (Hittite cuneiform KURURUMi-ta-an-ni), also Mittani (Mi-it-ta-ni) or Hanigalbat (Assyrian Hanigalbat, Khanigalbat cuneiform a-ni-gal-bat) or Naharin in ancient Egyptian texts was a Hurrian (non-Indo-European)-speaking state in northern Syria and south-east Anatolia from c.15001300 BCE. It is the solution one encounters in the Encyclopdia Britannica and the Grand Dictionnaire Encyclopdique Larousse ". Newer findings complicate the story, however. Noting that nothing of value was found on the bodies, he speculated that the travellers were killed by Thuggees, a cult of robbers and murderers whose fearsome reputation in British India gave us the word thug. Thuggees were said to attach themselves to travellers or groups of pilgrims, gaining their trust and then robbing and murdering them on a remote stretch of road. The earliest written document that mentions the Albanian language is a late 13th-century crime report from Dubrovnik. The name derives from the village of Andronovo (.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}5553N 5542E / 55.883N 55.700E / 55.883; 55.700), where in 1914, several graves were discovered, with skeletons in crouched positions, buried with richly decorated pottery. The DNA from the Iberian skeletons cant tell us what kind of culture the Yamnaya replaced, but it does much to corroborate Gimbutass sense that the descendants of the Yamnaya caused much greater disruption than other archeologists believed. Arguments for the identification of the Proto-Indo-Europeans as steppe nomads from the PonticCaspian region had already been made in the 19th century by the German scholars, Theodor Benfey (1869) and Victor Hehn[de] (1870), followed notably by Otto Schrader (1883, 1890). Alexander left behind commanders and soldiers in some of the territories he conquered, many of whom stayed. [149] By the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, the dominant people as far east as the Altai Mountains southward to the northern outlets of the Tibetan Plateau were anthropologically Caucasian, with the northern part speaking Iranian Scythian languages and the southern parts Tocharian languages, having Mongoloid populations as their northeastern neighbors. [199][note 18][note 19], According to Mallory (1999), the Corded Ware culture may be postulated as "the common prehistoric ancestor of the later Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, Slavic, and possibly some of the Indo-European languages of Italy". [159] Of these the Yuezhi are generally held to have been Tocharians. Still, some anthropologists, social scientists, and even geneticists are deeply uncomfortable with any research that explores the hereditary differences among populations. [330] Several Mitanni rulers, such as Shattiwaza, had names which could be interpreted as Indo-Aryan. [261], Modern nations and ethnic groups called by the ethnonym Slavs are considerably diverse both genetically and culturally, and relations between them even within the individual ethnic groups themselves are varied, ranging from a sense of connection to mutual feelings of hostility.[262]. [164] The Pazyryk burials of the Ukok Plateau coincide with the apex of power of the Yuezhi, and the burials have therefore been attributed to them, which means that the Altai region was part of the Yuezhi Empire.[161]. The same Y-chromosome turnover is also found in Americans of African descent. Bone and tissue samples were sent to Oxford University for carbon dating. The data would be all over the map. [82] According to Anthony, hunting-fishing camps from the lower Volga, dated 62004500 BCE, could be the remains of people who contributed the CHG-component, similar to the Hotu cave, migrating from northwestern Iran or Azerbaijan via the western Caspian coast. The Anatolian hypothesis, also known as the Anatolian theory or the sedentary farmer theory, first developed by British archaeologist Colin Renfrew in 1987, proposes that the dispersal of Proto-Indo-Europeans originated in Neolithic Anatolia. While there can be no direct evidence of prehistoric languages, a synthesis of linguistics, archaeology, anthropology and genetics establishes both the existence of Proto-Indo-European and the spread of its daughter dialects through migrations of large populations of its speakers, as well as the recruitment of new speakers through emulation of conquering elites. Knowledge of them comes chiefly from the linguistic reconstruction, along with material evidence from archaeology and archaeogenetics. "[32] Nevertheless, the Anatolian hypothesis is incompatible with the linguistic evidence.[33]. They were unrelated to one another and genetically diverse, apparently coming from various areas and groups in India. The Italic languages are a subfamily of the Indo-European language family originally spoken by Italic peoples. In other words, he adds, it wasn't a one-way trip.. The study argues that more than 90% of Britain's Neolithic gene pool was replaced with the coming of the Beaker people,[180] who were around 50% WSH ancestry. The Kurgan hypothesis is the most widely accepted proposal to identify the Proto-Indo-European homeland from which the Indo-European languages spread out throughout Europe and parts of Asia. [web 17] Pre-Germanic may have been related to the Slavo-Baltic and Indo-Iranian languages, but reoriented towards the Italo-Celtic languages. Harney wrote up the findings, in a paper co-authored by twenty-seven other scientists. also acknowledge that the latest genetic evidence supports an origin of proto-Indo-Europeans in the steppe. The lake, a glacial tarn called Roopkund, was more than sixteen thousand feet above sea level, an arduous five-day trek from human habitation, in a mountain cirque surrounded by snowfields and battered by storms. Caucasus hunter-gatherers (CHG)[88] i.e. [173] While Anthony (2007) situates the development of pre-Germanic dialects east of the Carpathians, arguing for a migration up the Dniestr,[174] Anthony (2017) relates the origins of the Corded Ware to the early third century Yamna-migrations into the Danube-valley, stating that "[t]he migration stream that created these intrusive cemeteries now can be seen to have continued from eastern Hungary across the Carpathians into southern Poland, where the earliest material traits of the Corded ware horizon appeared. During this period, the Phrygians extended eastward and encroached upon the kingdom of Urartu, the descendants of the Hurrians, a former rival of the Hittites. In order to appease the goddess, the royal couple embarked on a pilgrimage. DNA analysis showed that all the victims appeared to have a genetic makeup typical of South Asian origin. While there, he discussed someday collaborating on a more detailed study of the Roopkund bones with the centers director, Lalji Singh, and Kumarasamy Thangaraj, a geneticist who had headed up the previous DNA analysis. [342], The Kassite language was not Indo-European. "[182] According to evolutionary geneticist Eske Willerslev, "There was a heavy reduction of Neolithic DNA in temperate Europe, and a dramatic increase of the new Yamnaya genomic component that was only marginally present in Europe prior to 3000 BC."[80]. ", Mallory: "The Kurgan solution is attractive and has been accepted by many archaeologists and linguists, in part or total. It also shows how DNA evidence can upset established archeological theories and bring rejected ones back into contention. Without written words, language transmission at the time would have depended largely on face-to-face contact, he says, suggesting the PIE speakers swept well across Europe and Asia. [web 27], The Iranian peoples[note 27] (also known as Iranic peoples) are an Indo-European ethno-linguistic group that comprise the speakers of Iranian languages. Extant major Iranian languages are Persian, Pashto, Kurdish, and Balochi, besides numerous smaller ones. Jahrtausend v. Chr", "Rapid radiation of the inner Indo-European languages: an advanced approach to Indo-European lexicostatistics", "An Overview of the Andronovo Culture: Late Bronze Age Indo-Iranians in Central Asia", "The Archaeology of Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Anatolian: Locating the Split", "Talking Neolithic: Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives on how Indo-European was Implemented in Southern Scandinavia", "The emergence of Bronze Age chariots in eastern Europe", "Twenty-first century clouds over Indo-European homelands", "The genomic ancestry of the Scandinavian Battle Axe Culture people and their relation to the broader Corded Ware horizon", "The Forgotten Child of the Wider Corded Ware Family: Russian Fatyanovo Culture in Context", "Finnish vatsa Sanskrit vats and the formation of Indo-Iranian and Uralic languages", "Royal "Chariot" Burials of Sanauli near Delhi and Archaeological Correlates of Prehistoric Indo-Iranian Languages", University of British Columbia, Department of Asian Studies, "Time Depth, Convergence Theory, and Innovation in Proto-Indo-European: 'Old Europe' as a PIE Linguistic Area", "Autochthonous Aryans? [156], The political history of the Indo-Europeans of Inner Asia from the 2nd century B.C. It may be the longest and most dangerous pilgrimage in India, and a particularly perilous sectionthe Jyumra Gali, or Path of Deathruns along a ridge high above Roopkund. Gordon Childe had opposed the Nordic Theory since 1926 for ideological reasons, deeming it too . [304], From tribal and village beginnings, the state of Phrygia arose in the eighth century BCE with its capital at Gordium. [184] And the Celtic, Italic, Anatolian and Tocharian languages preserve archaisms which are preserved only in those languages.[184]. [144] It is believed that the Tarim mummies, dated from 1800 BCE, represent a migration of Tocharian speakers from the Afanasevo culture in the Tarim Basin in the early 2nd millennium BCE;[39] however, a 2021 genetic study demonstrated the Tarim Mummies are remains of locals descending from Ancient North Eurasians and Northeast Asians, and instead suggested that "Tocharian may have been plausibly introduced to the Dzungarian Basin by Afanasievo migrants" -i.e. [1][2] It postulates that the people of a Kurgan culture in the Pontic steppe north of the Black Sea were the most likely speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language . The Spanish conquest of the Americas produced human suffering on a grotesque scalewar, mass murder, rape, slavery, genocide, starvation, and pandemic disease. [web 10]. [89] Where this CHG-component came from is unknown; the mix of EHG and CHG may result from "an existing natural genetic gradient running from EHG far to the north to CHG/Iran in the south,"[90] or it may be explained as "the result of Iranian/CHG-related ancestry reaching the steppe zone independently and prior to a stream of AF [Anatolian Farmer] ancestry,"[90] reaching the steppes with people who migrated northwards into the steppes between 5,000 and 3,000 BCE. Reich wrote back to him saying that the full DNA from Roopkund B was extremely different from Armenians both modern and ancient. Whats more, scholars increasingly view British reports about Thuggees as inaccurate or embellished, reflecting the colonialist fear and incomprehension of the country they occupied. Archaeological cultures identified with phases of Indo-Aryan culture include the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture, the Gandhara Grave culture, the Black and red ware culture and the Painted Grey Ware culture. [193] Between 3100 and 2800/2600 BCE, when the Yamnaya horizon spread fast across the Pontic Steppe, a real folk migration of Proto-Indo-European speakers from the Yamna-culture took place into the Danube Valley,[4] moving along Usatovo territory toward specific destinations, reaching as far as Hungary,[194] where as many as 3,000 kurgans may have been raised. [163] While the Yuezhi were pressuring the Xiongnu from the west, the Donghu were doing the same from the east. [326], Proto-Indo-Iranian arose due to this BMAC-influence. [41] Yet, according to Mariya Ivanova the Maykop origins were on the Iranian Plateau,[42] while kurgans from the beginning of the 4th millennium at Soyuqbulaq in Azerbaijan, which belong to the Leyla-Tepe culture, show parallels with the Maykop kurgans. [275], Indo-Europeanization was complete by the beginning of the Bronze Age. A military campaign would explain the genetic replacement. [343] Around 130 BCE he attacked and utterly defeated the Yuezhi, settling the Wusun in the Ili Valley.[343]. [280], These tribes, or at least a number of tribes considered "Illyrians proper", of which only small fragments are attested enough to classify as branches of Indo-European;[281] were probably extinct by the 2ndcentury CE. [1] The Maykop culture shows the earliest evidence of the beginning Bronze Age, and bronze weapons and artifacts are introduced to the Yamnaya horizon.

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